Nekeisha Maxie
Chapter 7 Classical Era Variations
Africa and the Americas
1. Beginning
A. Maya language and folkway still survive among about 6 million people
Recent Maya revival was armed uprising, began in early 1994 led by Zapatista Army of National Liberation
Once again, some 1500 years after the high point of their classical civilization, the Maya were making history
B. Classical era civilization are not just Eurasian
The Americas, Maya and Moche
Africa, Meroe, Axum, Niger River Valley
The have some similarities in developing cultures
Resultant development of civilizations
Agricultural revolutions took place in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas
C. The world’s population at the beginning of the Common Era was 250 million people
More than 80 percent were in Eurasia
There were important differences between civilizations in different regions
Africa imported previously domesticated sheep, goats, chickens, horses, camels
The Americas lacked nearly all animals suitable for domestication
In Africa, was confined to north and northeast
Limited to Americas to Mesoamerica, most highly developed among the Maya
Fewer and classical civilization in the Americas and Africa
2. The African Northeast
A. Africa had no common identity in the classical era
Enormous size of the continent
Great environmental variation within the continent
Africa is the most tropical of the world’s supercontinents
More diseases carrying insects and parasites
Climate means poorer soils and less productive agriculture
Africa is shaped by interaction with nearby Eurasia and Arabia
North Africa is apart of the Roman Empire
Arabia as source if the domestic camel
B. Meroe continuing a Nile Valley Civilization
Nubian civilization was almost as old as Egyptian civilization
Constant interaction and remained a distinct civilization
With decline of Egypt, Nubian civilization came to focus on Meroe
Civilization there flourished 300 b.c.e-100 c.e
Ruled by an all-power sacred monarch
Buried with human sacrifices
City of Meroe had craft specialization
Ironworking was important
Rural areas had a combination of herding and farming
Paid to tribute ruler
Farming was based on rainfall, not irrigation
C. Major long distance trade was source of much of wealth and military power
Had to contact with the Mediterranean
Also traded to east and west by means if camel caravans
Less Egyptian influence than earlier times
New prominence of local lion god Apedemek
Egyptian writer was replaced by a new Meroitic script
Decline of Meroe after 100 c.e.
Deforestation too much word use in iron industry
Conquest in 340s c.e by Axum
Penetration of Coptic Christianity, Christian dominance for 1,000 years
Penetration of Islam after about 1300
D. Axum The Making of a Christian Kingdom
Axum was located in present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia
Kingdom’s economic foundation was highly productive agriculture
Plow-based farming not reliant on hoe or digging stick like most of Africa
High production of wheat, barley, millet, teff
E. Substantial state emerged by about 50 c.e.
Stimulated by Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade port of Adulis
Commerce taxes were major source of state revenue
Capital city Axum in the interior was center of monumental building
Huge stone obelisks probably mark royal graves
Some over 100 feet tall
Town language was Geez, written in South Arabian–derived script
Most of rural populace spoke Agaw
Capital exerted loose control, mostly collection of tribute
F. Christianity arrived in fourth century c.e.
King Ezana adopted Christianity about the time of Constantine
Coptic Christianity is still the religion of half the region
Fourth to sixth centuries c.e.: imperial expansion into Meroë and Yemen
Reached gates of Mecca by 571
Decline followed
Soil exhaustion, erosion, deforestation
Rise of Islam altered trade routes
Revival of state several centuries later, but further south
Both Meroë and Axum paralleled Eurasian developments and had
Direct contact with Mediterranean civilizations
3. Along the Niger River: Cities without States
A. There was major urbanization along the middle stretches of the Niger River between 300 b.c.e. and 900 c.e.
Migration of peoples from the southern Sahara during long dry period
But no evidence of a state structure, either imperial or city-state
Archeologists have not found evidence of despotic power, widespread war, or deep social inequality like
Indus Valley civilization
B. Cities like Jenne-jeno were clusters of economically specialized settlements.
Iron smithing was earliest and most prestigious occupation
Vllages of cotton weavers, potters, praise-singers (griots) grew up around central towns
Artisan communities became occupational castes
Rural populace also specialized (fishing, rice cultivation, etc.)
The middle Niger cities were stimulated by a network of West African commerce.
Large-scale states emerged in West Africa in the second millennium c.e.
Stimulated by trans-Saharan commerce
4. South of the Equator: The World of Bantu Africa
A. Movement of Bantu-speaking peoples into Africa south of equator
Over time, 400 distinct Bantu languages developed
By the first century c.e., Bantu agriculturalists occupied forest regions of equatorial Africa; some had
probably reached East African coast
Spread to most of eastern and southern Africa
The movement wasn’t a conquest or self-conscious migration
B. Cultural Encounters
Bantu-speaking peoples interacted with established societies
Most significant interaction: agricultural Bantu and gathering and hunting peoples
Bantu advantages and numbers: agriculture supports more people
Disease: Bantu brought new diseases to people with little immunity
Gathering and hunting peoples were largely displaced, absorbed, eliminated
Bantu peoples have preserved some of language and ways of people they displaced
The Batwa (Pygmy) people became “forest specialists” and interacted with the Bantu
Bantu culture changed because of encounter with different peoples
In East Africa, shifted from yam-based agriculture to grains also adopted Southeast Asian crops
Bantu peoples spread their skills and culture through eastern and southern Africa
C. Society and Religion
creation of many distinct societies and cultures in 500–1500 c.e.
Kenya: decision making by kinship and age structures
Zimbabwe and Lake Victoria region: larger kingdoms
East African coast after 1000 c.e.: rival city-states
Development depended on large number of factors
Religion placed less emphasis on a remote High God and more on
Ancestral or nature spirits
Sacrifices (especially cattle) to access power of dead ancestors
Power of charms was activated by proper rituals
Widespread belief in witches
Diviners could access world of the supernatural
Based on the notion of “continuous revelation”: new messages still come from the world beyond
No missionary impulse
5. Civilizations of Mesoamerica
A. There was a lack of interaction with other major cultures, including with other cultures in the
Americas.
Development without large domesticated animals or ironworking
Important civilizations developed in Mesoamerica and the Andes long before Aztec and Inca empires
Extraordinary diversity of Mesoamerican civilizations
Shared an intensive agricultural technology
Shared economies based on market exchange
Similar religions and frequent interaction
B. The Maya: Writing and Warfare
Maya ceremonial centers developed as early as 2000 b.c.e. in present-day Guatemala and Yucatan
Classical phase of Maya civilization: 250–900 c.e.
Development of advanced mathematical system
Elaborate calendars and creation of most elaborate writing system in the Americas
Large amount of monumental architecture (temples, pyramids, palaces, public plazas)
C. Maya economy
Agriculture had large-scale human engineering (swamp drainage, terracing, water management system)
Supported a substantial elite and artisan class
Political system of city-states and regional kingdoms was highly
Fragmented and frequent warfare; capture and sacrifice of prisoners
Densely populated urban and ceremonial centers
Ruled by “state shamans” who could mediate with divine
Tikal’s population was around 50,000 people, with 50,000 more in hinterland
No city-state ever succeeded in creating a unified empire
D. rapid collapse in the century after a long-term drought began in 840
Population dropped by at least 85 percent
Elements of Maya culture survived, but not the great cities
Reasons posited for the collapse:
Extremely rapid population growth after 600 c.e. outstripped resources
Disunity and rivalry prevented a coordinated response to climatic catastrophe
Warfare became more frequent
E. Teotihuacán: America’s Greatest City
Was begun ca. 150 b.c.e. by 550 c.e., population was 100,000–200,000
Much about Teotihuacán is unknown
City was centrally planned on a gridlike pattern
Specialized artisans and little evidence of rulers or of tradition of public inscriptions
May have been ruled by an oligarchy
F. deep influence on Mesoamerica, especially in 300–600 c.e.
Directly administered perhaps 10,000 square miles
Influence of Teotihuacán armies spread further
Apparently also had diplomatic connections with other areas
Trade and copying of Teotihuacán art and architecture
Mysterious collapse ca. 650 c.e. and Aztecs named the place Teotihuacán: “city of the gods”
6. Civilizations of the Andes
A. The rich marine environment possessed an endless supply of seabirds and fish.
Most well-known civilization of the region was the Incas
Central Peruvian coast was home to one of the First Civilizations: Norte Chico
Classical era of Andean civilization is 1000 b.c.e.–1000 c.e.
B. Chavín: A Pan-Andean Religious Movement
Numerous ceremonial centers uncovered, dating to 2000–1000 b.c.e.
ca. 900 b.c.e., Chavín de Huántar became focus of a religious movement
Chavín de Huántar was in good location along trade routes
Elaborate temple complex and beliefs apparently drew on both desert region and rain forests
Probably used hallucinogenic San Pedro cactus
C. widespread imitation across Peru and beyond
Chavín became a pilgrimage center and did not become an empire
Faded by 200 b.c.e.
D. Moche: A Regional Andean Civilization
Flourished between about 100 and 800 c.e. along 250 miles of Peru’s north coast
Agriculture based on complex irrigation system
Rule by warrior-priests and some lived on top of huge pyramids
Pyramid of the Sun was made of 143 million bricks
Rituals mediated between humans and gods
Use of hallucinogenic drugs and human sacrifice
Rulers had elaborate burials and superb craftsmanship of elite objects
Ecological disruption in sixth century c.e. undermined the civilization
Many other civilizations grew up in the Andes (Nazca, Huari, Chimu)
7. North America in the Classical Era: From Chaco to Cahokia
A. “Semi-sedentary” peoples were established in the eastern woodlands of North America, Central America, the Caribbean islands, and the Amazon basin.
Gathering and hunting peoples still populated much of Americas
B. Pit Houses and Great Houses: The Ancestral Pueblo
Southwestern North America began maize cultivation in second millennium b.c.e.
Only became the basis of settled agriculture ca. 600–800 c.e.
Gradual adaptation of maize to desert environment
C. establishment of permanent villages
Pit houses in small settlements and by 900 c.e., many villages also had larger ceremonial structures kivas
Local trading networks, some long-distance exchange
D. development of larger settlements pueblos
Most spectacular was in Chaco canyon
Five major pueblos emerged between 860 and 1130 c.e.
About 70 outlying settlements linked to main centers
Largest “great house” or town (Pueblo Bonito) was five stories high with over 600 rooms
Hundreds of roads radiated out from Chaco (maybe were a sacred landscape)
Chaco was a center for turquoise production
Warfare increased with extended drought after 1130
Great houses abandoned by 1200
E. The Mound Builders of the Eastern Woodlands
Mississippi River valley: Agricultural Revolution by 2000 b.c.e.
Agriculture as a supplement to gathering and hunting diet
Creation of societies marked by large earthen mounds.
Earliest built ca. 2000 b.c.e. most elaborate of mound-building cultures (Hopewell culture) was
established between 200 b.c.e. and 400 c.e.
F. Hopewell: large burial mounds and geometric earthworks
Many artifacts found in them—evidence of extensive trade
Careful astronomical orientation
G. Cahokia (near present-day St. Louis, MO) flourished between 900 and 1250 c.e.
Introduction of maize agriculture allowed larger population
Central mound: terraced pyramid of four levels and occupied 15 acres that was over 100 feet high
Community of about 10,000 people
Widespread trade network and apparently had stratified class system
H. sixteenth-century Europeans encountered similar chiefdom among the Natchez in
southwestern Mississippi
Paramount chiefs (“Great Suns”) lived in luxury and Clear social elite
But upper-class people were required to marry commoners
Significant military capacity
8. Reflections: Deciding What’s Important: Balance in World History
A. Teachers and writers of world history have to decide what to include.
B. Several possible standards can be used in decision making:
Durability (which would make the Paleolithic section enormous)
Population (Eurasia, with 80 percent of population, gets more space)
Influence (impact of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam)
The historian’s location and audience
What’s wrong with being “Eurocentric” with a Western audience?
C. Historians do not agree on the “proper” balance when teaching world civ.
Quiz Questions
1. In what ways did Teotihuacan shape history of Mesoameric?
2.When historians refer to Africa during the classical era, what are the speaking about?
3. What and where is Americas greatest city, when was it built and its population?
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